Valuing Nature : A History of the Ecosystem Services Concept and Its Application in the Scandinavian Countries

Sammanfattning: Since the early 2000s, the ecosystem services concept has become increasingly popular internationally. It has also been central in Scandinavian environmental policies and projects. This thesis reviews the history of and the philosophical problems associated with the ecosystem services concept. In this connection, the ‘value’ of nature is explored from a theoretical and a practical lens by scrutinising the ecosystem services discourse. The histories and uses of the ecosystem services concept in Sweden, Norway and Denmark are traced through analyses of governmental-issued texts. The comparison of the three countries shows how this complex concept has been implemented and how it is related to other market-based conservation approaches. The thesis further discusses how pricing nature is both a powerful yet problematic tool in conservation efforts. In the overall discussion of the concept and its application, three issues of tension within the ecosystem services discourse are identified. They are referred to as ‘the ethical problem’ (can we value nature?), ‘the methodological problem’ (how do we estimate the worth of ecosystem services?) and ‘the affective problem’ (what is the effect of valuing ecosystem services?). Ultimately, by analysing the three case studies this thesis argues that the ecosystems services concept can be used to broaden discussions around the value of nature, which might lead to more democratic and accountable conservation.